Progress in Pediatric Cardiology
Volume 22, Issue 1 , Pages 95-107 , May 2006

Tachyarrhythmias in the fetus: State of the art diagnosis and treatment

References 

  1. Bergmans MG, Jonker GJ, Kock HC. Fetal supraventricular tachycardia. Review of the literature. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1985;40:61–68
  2. Larmay HJ, Strasburger JF. Differential diagnosis and management of the fetus and newborn with an irregular or abnormal heart rate. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2004;51:1033–1050
  3. Allen HDBG, Clark EB, Driscoll DJ. Heart disease in infants, children, and adolescents. 6th ed.. Philadelphia: Lippincott; 2001;
  4. Sonesson SE, Winberg P, Lidegran M, Westgren M. Foetal supraventricular tachycardia and cerebral complications. Acta Paediatr. 1996;85:1249–1252
  5. Schade RP, Stoutenbeek P, de Vries LS, Meijboom EJ. Neurological morbidity after fetal supraventricular tachyarrhythmia. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1999;13:43–47
  6. Oudijk MA, Gooskens RH, Stoutenbeek P, De Vries LS, Visser GH, Meijboom EJ. Neurological outcome of children who were treated for fetal tachycardia complicated by hydrops. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2004;24:154–158
  7. Oudijk MA, Ruskamp JM, Ambachtsheer BE, et al. Drug treatment of fetal tachycardias. Paediatr Drugs. 2002;4:49–63
  8. Hyman AS. Irregularities of the fetal heart: a phonocardiographic study of the fetal heart sounds from the fifth to eighth months of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1930;20:332–347
  9. Silber DL, Durnin RE. Intrauterine atrial tachycardia, associated with massive edema in a newborn. Am J Dis Child. 1969;117:722–726
  10. Newburger JW, Keane JF. Intrauterine supraventricular tachycardia. J Pediatr. 1979;95:780–786
  11. Kerenyi TD, Gleicher N, Meller J, et al. Transplancental cardioversion of intrauterine supraventricular tachycardia with digitalis. Lancet. 1980;2:393–394
  12. Wolff F, Breuker KH, Schlensker KH, Bolte A. Prenatal diagnosis and therapy of fetal heart rate anomalies: with a contribution on the placental transfer of Verapamil. J Perinat Med. 1980;8:203–208
  13. Teuscher A, Bossi E, Imhof P, Erb E, Stocker FP, Weber JW. Effect of propranolol on fetal tachycardia in diabetic pregnancy. Am J Cardiol. 1978;42:304–307
  14. Kohl T, Tercanli S, Kececioglu D, Holzgreve W. Direct fetal administration of adenosine for the termination of incessant supraventricular tachycardia. Obstet Gynecol. 1995;85:873–874
  15. Blanch G, Walkinshaw SA, Walsh K. Cardioversion of fetal tachyarrhythmia with adenosine. Lancet. 1994;344:1646
  16. Kleinman CS, Hobbins JC, Jaffe CC, Lynch DC, Talner NS. Echocardiographic studies of the human fetus: prenatal diagnosis of congenital heart disease and cardiac dysrhythmias. Pediatrics. 1980;65:1059–1067
  17. Wladimiroff JW, McGhie JS, Hovestreydt-Snijder RP, Tasseron EW. M-mode and pulsed Doppler ultrasound assessment of severe fetal bradycardia. A case report. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1981;88:1246–1248
  18. DeVore GR, Donnerstein RL, Kleinman CS, Platt LD, Hobbins JC. Fetal echocardiography: II. The diagnosis and significance of a pericardial effusion in the fetus using real-time-directed M-mode ultrasound. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1982;144:693–700
  19. Allan LD, Anderson RH, Sullivan ID, Campbell S, Holt DW, Tynan M. Evaluation of fetal arrhythmias by echocardiography. Br Heart J. 1983;50:240–245
  20. Kain JSO, Hirsh M, Akselrod S. Noninvasive fetal ECG monitoring System. In: Circulation. 1995;p. I-707
  21. Kleinman CS, Copel JA, Weinstein EM, Santulli TV, Hobbins JC. In utero diagnosis and treatment of fetal supraventricular tachycardia. Semin Perinatol. 1985;9:113–129
  22. Strasburger JF, Huhta JC, Carpenter RJ, Garson A, McNamara DG. Doppler echocardiography in the diagnosis and management of persistent fetal arrhythmias. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1986;7:1386–1391
  23. Fouron JC, Proulx F, Miro J, Gosselin J. Doppler and M-mode ultrasonography to time fetal atrial and ventricular contractions. Obstet Gynecol. 2000;96:732–736
  24. Wakai RT, Leuthold AC, Wilson AD, Martin CB. Association of fetal junctional rhythm and respiratory arrhythmia detected by magnetocardiography. Pediatr Cardiol. 1997;18:201–203
  25. van Leeuwen P, Hailer B, Bader W, Geissler J, Trowitzsch E, Gronemeyer DH. Magnetocardiography in the diagnosis of fetal arrhythmia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1999;106:1200–1208
  26. Kahler C, Grimm B, Schleussner E, et al. The application of fetal magnetocardiography (FMCG) to investigate fetal arrhythmias and congenital heart defects (CHD). Prenat Diagn. 2001;21:176–182
  27. Kariniemi V, Ahopelto J, Karp PJ, Katila TE. The fetal magnetocardiogram. J Perinat Med. 1974;2:214–216
  28. Paladini D, Lamberti A, Teodoro A, Arienzo M, Tartaglione A, Martinelli P. Tissue Doppler imaging of the fetal heart. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2000;16:530–535
  29. Rein AJ, Levine JC, Nir A. Use of high-frame rate imaging and doppler tissue echocardiography in the diagnosis of fetal ventricular tachycardia. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2001;14:149–151
  30. Rein AJJTMY, Nir A, Gilon D, Martin SL, Sahn DJ. Curved M mode and anatomical M mode tissue velocity maps of fetal atrial and ventricular wall motion. A better method for evaluating fetal heart rhythm. In: Circulation. vol. 100:1999;p. I 2074
  31. Rein AJ, O'Donnell C, Geva T, et al. Use of tissue velocity imaging in the diagnosis of fetal cardiac arrhythmias. Circulation. 2002;106:1827–1833
  32. Simpson JM, Sharland GK. Fetal tachycardias: management and outcome of 127 consecutive cases. Heart. 1998;79:576–581
  33. Strasburger JF. Fetal arrhythmias. Prog Pediatr Cardiol. 2000;11:1–17
  34. Wakai RT, Lengle JM, Leuthold AC. Transmission of electric and magnetic foetal cardiac signals in a case of ectopia cordis: the dominant role of the vernix. caseosa. Phys Med Biol. 2000;45:1989–1995
  35. Glickstein J, Buyon J, Kim M, Friedman D. The fetal Doppler mechanical PR interval: a validation study. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2004;19:31–34
  36. Andelfinger G, Fouron JC, Sonesson SE, Proulx F. Reference values for time intervals between atrial and ventricular contractions of the fetal heart measured by two Doppler techniques. Am J Cardiol 2001; 88: 1433-6 [A8].
  37. Fouron JC, Fournier A, Proulx F, et al. Management of fetal tachyarrhythmia based on superior vena cava/aorta Doppler flow recordings. Heart. 2003;89:1211–1216
  38. Wakai RT, Strasburger JF, Li Z, Deal BJ, Gotteiner NL. Magnetocardiographic rhythm patterns at initiation and termination of fetal supraventricular tachycardia. Circulation. 2003;107:307–312
  39. Schmidt MR, Kristiansen SB, White P, et al. Glucose-insulin infusion improves cardiac function during fetal tachycardia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43:445–452
  40. Schmidt MR, Smerup M, Kristiansen SB, et al. Maternal hyperglycemia improves fetal cardiac function during tachycardia-induced heart failure in pigs. Circulation. 2004;110:2627–2630
  41. Strasburger JF, Cuneo BF, Michon MM, et al. Amiodarone therapy for drug-refractory fetal tachycardia. Circulation. 2004;109:375–379
  42. Kleinman CS, Copel JA, Weinstein EM, Santulli TV, Hobbins JC. Treatment of fetal supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. J Clin Ultrasound. 1985;13:265–273
  43. Barjot P, Hamel P, Calmelet P, Maragnes P, Herlicoviez M. Flecainide against fetal supraventricular tachycardia complicated by hydrops fetalis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1998;77:353–358
  44. Krapp M, Baschat AA, Gembruch U, Geipel A, Germer U. Flecainide in the intrauterine treatment of fetal supraventricular tachycardia. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2002;19:158–164
  45. Ebenroth ES, Cordes TM, Darragh RK. Second-line treatment of fetal supraventricular tachycardia using flecainide acetate. Pediatr Cardiol. 2001;22:483–487
  46. Ito S, Magee L, Smallhorn J. Drug therapy for fetal arrhythmias. Clin Perinatol. 1994;21:543–572
  47. Redmond GP. Propranolol and fetal growth retardation. Semin Perinatol. 1982;6:142–147
  48. Oudijk MA, Ruskamp JM, Ververs FF, et al. Treatment of fetal tachycardia with sotalol: transplacental pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42:765–770
  49. Oudijk MA, Michon MM, Kleinman CS, et al. Sotalol in the treatment of fetal dysrhythmias. Circulation. 2000;101:2721–2726
  50. Sasse M, Paul T, Bergmann P, Kallfelz HC. Sotalol associated torsades de pointes tachycardia in a 15-month-old child: successful therapy with magnesium aspartate. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1998;21:1164–1166
  51. Manassiev NAVV-OMJN. What is the normal heart rate of a term fetus?. J Obstet Gynaecol. 1998;18:442–444
  52. Emmanouilides GCAH, Riemenschneider TA, Gutgesell HP. Heart disease in infants, children, and adolescents. 5th ed.. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins; 1995;
  53. Cunningham FGMPC, Gant NF, Leveno KJ, Gilstrap LC. Williams' obstetrics. 19th ed.. Norwalk (CT): Appleton & Lange; 1993;
  54. Copel JA, Friedman AH, Kleinman CS. Management of fetal cardiac arrhythmias. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 1997;24:201–211
  55. Kenny J, Plappert T, Doubilet P, Salzman D, Sutton MG. Effects of heart rate on ventricular size, stroke volume, and output in the normal human fetus: a prospective Doppler echocardiographic study. Circulation. 1987;76:52–58
  56. Jaeggi E, Fouron JC, Drblik SP. Fetal atrial flutter: diagnosis, clinical features, treatment, and outcome. J Pediatr. 1998;132:335–339
  57. Boineau JP. Atrial flutter: a synthesis of concepts. Circulation. 1985;72:249–257
  58. Wren C. Mechanisms of fetal tachycardia. Heart. 1998;79:536–537
  59. Hosono T, Kanagawa T, Chiba Y, Kandori A, Tsukada K. The coincidence of fetal magnetocardiography and direct electrocardiography in a case of fetal atrial flutter due to intracardiac tumor. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2002;17:331–333
  60. Hosono T, Kanagawa T, Chiba Y, Neki R, Kandori A, Tsukada K. Fetal atrial flutter recorded prenatally by magnetocardiography. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2002;17:75–77
  61. Cotton JL. Identification of fetal atrial flutter by Doppler tissue imaging. Circulation. 2001;104:1206–1207
  62. Krapp M, Kohl T, Simpson JM, Sharland GK, Katalinic A, Gembruch U. Review of diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of fetal atrial flutter compared with supraventricular tachycardia. Heart. 2003;89:913–917
  63. Naumburg E, Riesenfeld T, Axelsson O. Fetal tachycardia: intrauterine and postnatal course. Fetal Diagn Ther. 1997;12:205–209
  64. Naheed ZJ, Strasburger JF, Deal BJ, Benson DW, Gidding SS. Fetal tachycardia: mechanisms and predictors of hydrops fetalis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27:1736–1740
  65. Kannankeril PJ, Gotteiner NL, Deal BJ, Johnsrude CL, Strasburger JF. Location of accessory connection in infants presenting with supraventricular tachycardia in utero: clinical correlations. Am J Perinatol. 2003;20:115–119
  66. Jaeggi E, Fouron JC, Fournier A, van Doesburg N, Drblik SP, Proulx F. Ventriculo-atrial time interval measured on M mode echocardiography: a determining element in diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of fetal supraventricular tachycardia. Heart. 1998;79:582–587
  67. Price JF, Kertesz NJ, Snyder CS, Friedman RA, Fenrich AL. Flecainide and sotalol: a new combination therapy for refractory supraventricular tachycardia in children <1 year of age. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39:517–520
  68. Leiria TL, Lima GG, Dillenburg RF, Zielinsky P. Fetal tachyarrhythmia with 1:1 atrioventricular conduction. Adenosine infusion in the umbilical vein as a diagnostic test. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2000;75:65–68
  69. Bradley DJ, Fischbach PS, Law IH, Serwer GA, Dick M. The clinical course of multifocal atrial tachycardia in infants and children. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;38:401–408
  70. Salerno JC, Kertesz NJ, Friedman RA, Fenrich AL. Clinical course of atrial ectopic tachycardia is age-dependent: results and treatment in children <3 or > or =3 years of age. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43:438–444
  71. Fouron JC. Fetal arrhythmias: the Saint-Justine hospital experience. Prenat Diagn. 2004;24:1068–1080
  72. Lupoglazoff JM, Denjoy I, Luton D, Magnier S, Azancot A. Prenatal diagnosis of a familial form of junctional ectopic tachycardia. Prenat Diagn. 1999;19:767–770
  73. Villazon E, Fouron JC, Fournier A, Proulx F. Prenatal diagnosis of junctional ectopic tachycardia. Pediatr Cardiol. 2001;22:160–162
  74. Cuneo BF, Strasburger JF. Management strategy for fetal tachycardia. Obstet Gynecol. 2000;96:575–581
  75. Sherer DM, Sadovksy E, Menashe M, Mordel N, Rein AJ. Fetal ventricular tachycardia associated with nonimmunologic hydrops fetalis. A case report. J Reprod Med. 1990;35:292–294
  76. Geva T, Santini F, Pear W, Driscoll SG, Van Praagh R. Cardiac rhabdomyoma. Rare cause of fetal death. Chest. 1991;99:139–142
  77. Garson Arthur J, Bricker Timothy J, Fisher David J, Neish Steven R. The science and practice of pediatric cardiology. 2nd ed.. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins; 1998;
  78. Cuneo BF, Ovadia M, Strasburger JF, et al. Prenatal diagnosis and in utero treatment of torsades de pointes associated with congenital long QT syndrome. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91:1395–1398
  79. Schleich JM, Bernard Du Haut Cilly F, Laurent MC, Almange C. Early prenatal management of a fetal ventricular tachycardia treated in utero by amiodarone with long term follow-up. Prenat Diagn. 2000;20:449–452
  80. Kleinman CS, Nehgme RA. Cardiac arrhythmias in the human fetus. Pediatr Cardiol. 2004;
  81. Hajdu J, Marton T, Toth-Pal E, Papp Z. Familial association of congenital left heart abnormalities and sustained fetal arrhythmia. Pediatr Cardiol. 1999;20:368–370
  82. Fesslova V, Villa L, Nicolini U. Fetal hydrops due to a tachyarrhythmia progressing to organic pulmonary stenosis. Cardiol Young. 2000;10:158–161
  83. Simsek T, Kardelen F, Simsek M, Trak B. Pericardial cystic mass with fetal tachycardia. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2003;18:160–162
  84. Wu CT, Chen MR, Hou SH. Neonatal tuberous sclerosis with cardiac rhabdomyomas presenting as fetal supraventricular tachycardia. Jpn Heart J. 1997;38:133–137
  85. Lee LA, Simon C, Bove EL, et al. High intensity focused ultrasound effect on cardiac tissues: potential for clinical application. Echocardiography. 2000;17:563–566

PII: S1058-9813(06)00011-7

doi: 10.1016/j.ppedcard.2006.01.010

Progress in Pediatric Cardiology
Volume 22, Issue 1 , Pages 95-107 , May 2006